Social Psychology

Chapter 14

Social psychology – The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behavior and social interactions

Social context – The combination of

• The activities and interactions among people
• The setting in which behavior occurs, and
• The expectations and social norms governing behavior in that setting

Situationism – The view that environmental conditions influence people’s behavior as much or more than their personal dispositions do


Social role – One of several socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group

Script – Knowledge about the sequence of events and actions that is expected in a particular setting

Conformity - changing your behavior or opinions to match those of your group


Ashe identifies three factors that influence whether a person will yield to pressure:

• The size of the majority
• The presence of a partner who dissented from the majority
• The size of the discrepancy between the correct answer and the majority position

In “groupthink,” members of the group attempt to conform their opinions to what each believes to be the consensus of the group

Conditions likely to promote groupthink include:

• Isolation of the group
• High group cohesiveness
• Directive leadership
• Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures
• Homogeneity of members’ social background and ideology
• High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader

Obedience to authority


In Milgram’s experiment

• The victim was an actor
• The victim receive no actual shocks
• Nevertheless, this controversial experiment demonstrated how powerful effects of obedience to authority
• Situational factors, and not personality variables, appeared to effect people’s levels of obedience

Diffusion of responsibility – Dilution or weakening of each group member’s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members

Interpersonal attraction

Reward theory of attraction – A social learning view that says we like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost

Matching hypothesis – Prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are about their same level of attractiveness

Cognitive dissonance – A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes



Fundamental attribution error – Tendency to emphasize internal causes and ignore external pressures

Self-serving bias – Attributional pattern in which one takes credit for success but denies responsibility for failure

Prejudice – A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group

Discrimination – A negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group membership

In-group – The group with which an individual identifies

Out-group – Those outside the group with which an individual identifies

Social distance – The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person

Scapegoating

Combating prejudice

Research suggests that the possible tools for combating prejudice include:

• New role models
• Equal status contact
• Legislation

In the Robber’s Cave experiment, conflict between groups arose from an intensely competitive situation


Cooperation, however, replaced conflict when the experimenters contrived situations that fostered mutual interdependence and common goals for the groups

If you have any questions for me, please fill out one of the blank sheets of paper I have up front, giving your name, the e-mail address you check most often, and the details of your question(s).

Also, if you are interested in doing any live online reviews before the final (using the Elluminate link), please list what time or times you might be available to attend such a session.

Strategies to use with difficult exam questions

Acedemic Calendar
Winter Quarter Final Exam Schedule

Edge: THE MATHEMATICS OF LOVE: A Talk with John Gottman

Edge: THE MATHEMATICS OF LOVE: A Talk with John Gottman

Videos

The Science of Sex Appeal

Big Five Personality Test

Myers-Briggs Style Test

Personality

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Personality – Psychological qualities that bring continuity to an individual’s behavior in different situations and at different times

Psychoanalytic theory – Freud’s theory of personality

• Unconscious
• Eros
• Thanatos

Oral Stage


Anal Stage

Phallic Stage

--Oedipus complex

Latency Stage

Genital Stage

Ego defense mechanisms

• Repression
• Projection
• Denial
• Rationalization
• Reaction formation
• Displacement
• Regression
• Sublimation
  

Projective tests – Personality assessment instruments based on Freud’s concept of projection

Rorschach Inkblot Test


Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)



Carl Jung

Personal unconscious – Portion of the unconscious corresponding roughly to Freud’s id

Collective unconscious – Jung’s addition to the unconscious, involving a reservoir for instinctive “memories” including the archetypes, which exist in all people

Archetypes

• Shadow

Karen Horney

• Basic anxiety
• Neurotic needs

Humanistic theories

Abraham Maslow


Self-actualizing personalities – Healthy individuals who have met their basic needs and are free to be creative and fulfill their potentials

Carl Rogers


Fully functioning person – Term for a self-actualizing individual who has a self-concept that is both positive and congruent with reality

Unconditional positive regard – Love or caring without conditions attached

Denial is the refusal to accept reality and to act as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist. It is considered one of the most primitive of the defense mechanisms because it is characteristic of very early childhood development.

Displacement is the redirecting of thoughts feelings and impulses from an object that gives rise to anxiety to a safer, more acceptable one. Being angry at the boss and kicking the dog can be an example of displacement.

Projection is the attribution of one's undesired impulses onto another. Thus, an angry spouse accuses their partner of hostility.

Rationalization is the cognitive reframing of ones perceptions to protect the ego in the face of changing realities. Thus, the promotion one wished fervently for and didn't get becomes "a dead end job for brown nosers and yes men".

Reaction Formation is the converting of wishes or impulses that are perceived to be dangerous into their opposites. A woman who is furious at her child and wishes her harm might become overly concerned and protective of the child's health.

Regression is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of unacceptable impulses. For an example an adolescent who is overwhelmed with fear, anger and growing sexual impulses might become clinging and begin thumb sucking or bed wetting.

Repression is the blocking of unacceptable impulses from consciousness.

Sublimation is the channeling of unacceptable impulses into more acceptable outlets.

Introversion – The Jungian dimension that focuses on inner experience–one’s own thoughts and feelings, making the introvert less outgoing and sociable than the extrovert

Extraversion – The Jungian personality dimension involving turning one’s attention outward, toward others

Jung’s principle of opposites portrays each personality as a balance between opposing pairs of unconscious tendencies, such as introversion and extroversion

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Positive psychology – Movement within psychology focusing on the desirable aspects of human functioning, as opposed to an emphasis on psychopathology

Observational learning – Process of learning new responses by watching the behavior of others

Reciprocal determinism – Process in which the person, situation and environment mutually influence each other

Locus of control – An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate

Temperament – Basic, pervasive personality dispositions that are apparent in early childhood and establish the tempo and mood of an individual’s behaviors

Traits – Stable personality characteristics that are presumed to exist within the individual and guide his or her thoughts and actions under various conditions

The “Big Five” traits

Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.

Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness.

Openness to experience: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

Personality Type – Especially important dimensions or clusters of traits that are not only central to a person’s personality but are found with essentially the same pattern in many people

Person-situation controversy – Theoretical dispute concerning the relative contribution of personality factors and situational factors in controlling behavior

Implicit personality theories – Assumptions about personality that are held by people to simplify the task of understanding others

Fundamental attribution error – Assumption that another person’s behavior (especially undesirable behavior) is the result of a flaw in the personality, rather than in the situation