Thinking

Concept: mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics

Natural concepts: formed by everyday experiences "I know one when I see one"

Prototype: a "good example" of a concept--one that comes to mind easily

Artificial concepts: formed by logical, specific rules

We organize much of our declarative memories into concept hierarchies


Algorithms: Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if applied correctly



Heuristics: Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks; do not guarantee a correct solution (some examples include working backwards, searching for analogies, and breaking the problem into smaller problems)

Obstacles to problem solving

Mental set: Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem

Functional fixedness: Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose



Confirmation bias: Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree

Hindsight bias: tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance

Availability heuristic: Faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience

Links from the Web Resources for this chapter from the Student Companion Site to Psychology in Action

Concept Mapping Homepage

Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition

Memory

Memory – Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information

Human memory is good at

• Information on which attention is focused
• Information in which we are interested
• Information that arouses us emotionally
• Information that fits with our previous experiences
• Information that we rehearse

Encoding: Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system

Elaboration: Type of encoding in which meaning is added to information in working memory so that it may be more easily stored and retrieved

Storage: Involves retention of encoded material over time

Access and retrieval: Involves the location and recovery of information from memory



Sensory memory: Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli, also called sensory register

Testing sensory (iconic) memory
George Sperling's study



Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) sensory memory

Chunking: organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks)



Maintenance rehearsal: Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

Elaborative rehearsal: Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM

Levels-of-processing theory: Explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered
(deeper processing=better memory)

Long term memory - Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM



Anterograde amnesia –Inability to form memories for new information

Retrograde amnesia –Inability to remember information previously stored in memory



Flashbulb memory: a clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event



Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness

Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled

Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must retrieve previously presented information (example: fill in the blank test, seeing a picture of someone and remembering his/her name)

Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented or learned (example: multiple choice test)

Encoding specificity principle –The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered

Mood congruent memory: A happy moods is likely to trigger happy memories, depression perpetuates itself through biased retrieval of depressing memories

Forgetting

Transience: long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time

Absent-mindedness: Forgetting caused by lapses in attention

Proactive interference: previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information

Retroactive interference: newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material



Serial position effect: items in the middle of a sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last (includes primacy effect and recency effect)

Persistence: difficulty putting unwanted memories out of one’s mind

Mnemonics – Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory

Natural language mediators: words associated with new information to be remembered

Flash presentation
(on recall, recognition, and relearning)

Links from the Web Resources for this chapter from the Student Companion Site to Psychology in Action

Improving your memory

Tips and techniques for memory enhancement

Using memory principles to enhance your study skills

Elizabeth Loftus Homepage

New links (as of February 14)

Lecture on the classic study of eyewitness testimony by Loftus and Palmer

When Memory Lies (Elizabeth Loftus creates a false memory in Alan Alda)

Language and Intelligence Videos

Scientific American Frontiers

Learning (Chapter 6)

Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes

Classical Conditioning - a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a neutral stimulus, which acquires the power to elicit the same response.

Video explaining classical conditioning

Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer

Spontaneous recovery –Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay


Little Albert regains his identity

Classics in the History of Psychology (Watson and Raynor)

Stimulus generalization

Stimulus discrimination

Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

Classical conditioning in advertising

The Law of Effect: the idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or "stamped" into the organism




Operant Conditioning - rewards and punishments are consequences that influence the likelihood of the behaviors they follow recurring in the future.



Positive reinforcers –Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again

Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior

Link about reinforcement and punishment



Primary reinforcers: reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to the organism.

Secondary reinforcers: stimuli, such as money or tokens, that gain their reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers.

Continuous reinforcement

Partial reinforcement (also called intermittent reinforcement)

Extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio


• Variable Ratio


• Fixed Interval


• Variable Interval

Shaping: an operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing behaviors that are similar to the desired response

Punishment

Positive punishment: the application of an aversive stimulus after a response

Negative punishment: the removal of an attractive stimulus after a response

Problems with punishment

• Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed


• Often triggers aggression


• May inhibit learning new and better responses


• Is often applied unequally

Alternatives to punishment

• Extinction


• Reinforcing preferred activities


• Prompting and shaping

Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions (Kohler)

Cognitive map – a mental representation of physical space (demonstrated by Tolman, who also demonstrated latent learning)

Observational learning


Overview of Observational Learning


Potential homework articles

Berkeley Police Rewards Good Drivers with Treats
Conditional Behavior at the Zoo
Positive reinforcement helps children avoid junk food

A quick recap of classical conditioning.

Cartoon explaining classical conditioning (Added February 15)

Consciousness

Chapter 5

States of Mind

Conscious – Brain process of which we are aware

Nonconscious – Brain process that does not involve conscious processing (e.g. heart rate, breathing, control of internal organs)

Preconscious – Information that is not currently in consciousness, but can be brought into consciousness if attention is called to it

Unconscious – Many levels of processing that occur without awareness

Daydreaming – Mild form of consciousness alteration in which attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies, and away from the immediate situation

Sleep and Dreaming



Circadian rhythms

Jet lag

Rapid eye movements (REM)

Sleep paralysis




Non-REM (NREM) sleep

REM rebound

The Function of Sleep

• To conserve energy
• To restore body (neurotransmitters, neuron sensitivity)
• To flush out useless information from the brain

Sleep debt –Deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep that one requires for optimal functioning

Why We Dream

Freud believed dreams served the following two functions:

• To guard sleep
• To serve as sources of wish fulfillment
• Manifest and latent content

Dream content

• Varies by culture, gender, and age
• Frequently connects with recent experience
• May help us form memories
  

Activation-synthesis theory – Theory that dreams begin with random electrical activation coming from brain stem; dreams are brain’s attempt to make sense of this random activity

Sleep Disorders

Insomnia – Involves insufficient sleep, the inability to fall asleep quickly, frequent arousals, or early awakenings

Sleep apnea – Respiratory disorder in which person intermittently stops breathing while asleep

Narcolepsy – Involves sudden REM sleep attacks accompanied by cataplexy

Cataplexy – Sudden loss of muscle control that occurs before narcoleptic sleep attack; waking form of sleep paralysis

Night terrors – The screaming of a child in deep sleep, who, once awakened, has no memory of what mental events might have caused the fear

An altered state of consciousness occurs when some aspect of normal consciousness is modified by mental, behavioral, or chemical means.

• Hypnosis
• Meditation
• Psychoactive drug states

Hypnosis – Induced state of altered awareness, characterized by heightened suggestibility and deep relaxation

Hypnotic analgesia – Diminished sensitivity to pain while under hypnosis

Meditation – Form of consciousness change induced by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions and minimizing external stimulation

Exam Prep Links/Resources

SQ3R - A reading and Study Skill System

(More concise version of a handout I gave you in class.)

Flash Presentation about Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology

Flash Presentation on Descriptive Research Methods